Mind bending, surprising, and shocking plot twists are common narrative devices, designed to intrigue and entertain audiences. Yet when a plot twist occurs in our working life, especially when it results from our own actions, none of us see this as ‘entertaining’.

‘Tales of the Unintended’ in the header image is an adaptation of Roald Dahl’s ‘Tales of the Unexpected’. The reference here is to the way unintended consequences are woven into our organisational narratives. It’s also a pointer to distinctions that can be drawn between unexpected and unintended consequences. That is the subject of the comparative slide below, emphasising that the ripple effects of our decisions and actions all qualify as internal risks. They are therefore, important governance concerns.

Writers know that plot twists and ironic reversals keep readers hooked — especially when the clues were hiding in plain sight. These literary devices reward curiosity: the reader or viewer who asked, “What if there’s more?” feels vindicated when the twist arrives. Intrigue lies not just in what happens, but in what else might happen if we’re paying attention.

In the nonprofit world, unintended consequences can unfold just as dramatically. A policy change may trigger community backlash, or a cost-saving decision might quietly erode morale. Like fiction’s telltale signs and clues, early indicators often go unnoticed. That’s why curiosity matters. Early warning systems (such as those highlighted in Part 2 of this series) train us to spot the subtle clues before they become problems. For nonprofit leaders, curiosity isn’t just useful — it’s a risk-sensing instinct that rewrites outcomes before the story turns sour.

Narrative devices

A selection of narrative devices used by authors to highlight various ‘consequence scenarios’ is presented in the following chart.

These devices may or not be used in overtly moral tales, but they can all be seen to convey implicit warnings about the potential harms that can arise from our actions. The proverbial phrase “We are the authors of our own fate” recognises that human actions — not just external forces — shape outcomes, reinforcing the need to consider both intended and unintended consequences.

Organisational Narratives

Within our association, charity, and community cultures, many different narratives are employed. A selection of some of the more common story types is provided in the next table, along with suggested focal areas in which unintended consequences (i.e. risks) could arise.

Some of the areas listed may not currently appear in your risk assessment profile, and they are therefore offered for your consideration.

One area in which unintended consequences often arise is communications. Even when we have good intentions we can slip up in our messaging. Failing to know our audience, using humour at an inappropriate time, stepping on others’ territory, leaving important messages unsaid, or delivering them too late to have the optimal effect, are just some of the ways we can generate collateral damage from our communications.

Five key considerations for nonprofit leaders in avoiding unintended communication consequences are offered in the next chart.

Complimenting those considerations is a set of five key drivers or causes of unintended consequences. You may wish to consider this summary list alongside the 11 causal clusters presented in Part 1 of this series.

Stories and Theories

Part 1 in this series also included 11 Laws and Principles of Unintended Consequences, featuring a selection of effects, principles and models. For each of those, an explanatory story could be offered (alongside a technical explanation). It is so often true that we need to hear a story or a case study before we understand how a principle or theory works, or could work for us.

Listed amongst the Laws and Principles was The Cobra Effect, sometimes known as the Perverse Incentives Effect. This refers to situations where an attempt to solve a problem by offering a reward backfires, and actually makes the problem worse. A brief explanation of the background to the name of this effect is offered below.

By way of an incidental observation, it may help readers to avoid confusion by knowing that there are several models or frameworks that use the Cobra mnemonic or acronym.

The following chart takes three other effects or theories that are applicable to our theme, and provides a condensed story alongside a more formal description of the principle invoked.

As noted in this chart, the Midas Effect suggests that if our primary focus (intention) is addressed by first order thinking, then side effects and unintended consequences belong to second-order thinking.

While every action has a reaction, those reactions also have reactions.

In the light of this we must ask, “In setting out to achieve our goals, what undesirable side-effects might we be generating? Could there be a cascading or chain reaction that we would want to avoid?”

Three writers who have been very influential in enhancing our understanding of unintended consequences are Edward Tenner, Robert K. Merton, and Richard Zeckhauser. A comparative table of the key features of their theories highlights the similarities and differences in their guidance. Rather than seeing these as competing perspectives however, I suggest you consider them as complimentary to each other, with the combination offering a more nuanced approach than any one theory might provide on its own.

Consequence types by Discipline

In part 1, a range of generic consequence types was identified. The chart which follows canvasses how these various kinds of consequences might be evidenced across a range of disciplines, including governance.

Reflecting on Consequences

Thinking about consequences is not simply an ‘after-the-event’ activity. As illustrated in the next chart, the before, during, and after stages involve anticipatory reflection when planning, real-time reflection when implementing, and retrospective reflection when evaluating.

When narratives are treated as living tools (not just formal documents), they become fertile ground for spotting and addressing unintended consequences:

• Use storyboarding or journey mapping as reflective, collaborative processes
• Embed early warning indicators in strategy and operations tracking
• Invite cross-functional voices to test assumptions and surface blind spots

By recognising that every decision creates a storyline with possible side effects, nonprofit leaders can build a culture where intentionality and curiosity are routine—and where consequence-awareness is embedded in how the organisation thinks, plans, and evolves.

Our series has:

• explored the nature of consequences, distinguishing between outcomes and consequences, and also between unexpected and unintended consequences
• identified various risk management tools, especially early warning systems to avoid or limit unintended consequences, and
• reflected on narratives associated with this theme.

May your enhanced awareness of unintended consequences, and how to deal with them, have a beneficial ripple effect throughout your work as nonprofit leaders.

To bring this 3-part series to a close, our last chart lists a selection of reflections in which consequences, including the unintended variety, are in focus.

See also:

The Consequentiality of Unintended Consequences – Part 1
The Consequentiality of Unintended Consequences – Part 2
Hypothetically – what if …?
Fusing experience and expectation in decision-making
Ethical communications